INDIAN-CIVILS

The science of Archaeology, in the narrow sense, is the systematic discovery and examination of the physical remains left by human being. On the other hand, Archaeology is a science that has to deal with many other related sciences and objects as well. When this man's interest in ancient remains began, we don't know for sure. But we can still have some idea from some evidence. For example, Fatih Mehmet II the conqueror, the sultan who captured Istanbul from Byzantine empire, was known for his interest in antique pieces, and used to collect such objects. A much earlier example comes from Mesopotamia, Nabonide the King of Babylon ( 559-529 BC ), had a hall in his palace where he had exhibited the pieces left by the earlier civilizations. And the same king had sent out this exhibition to Our (another ancient city of Mesopotamia) to be displayed for the town people.

The science of Archaeology has to deal with different civilizations and periods of time. Therefore, this science is generally classified as under the following headings.

1.      Classical Archaeology ( Greek and Roman Civilizations )

2.      Pre classical archaeology of Mediterranean and Aegean Islands

3.      Near East and Asia Minor ( Anatolia )

4.      Egypt

5.      Western Europe

6.      Asia

7.      Pacific

8.      America

1. Classical archaeology
roughly covers from 1000 BC through 330 AD (end of Roman Empire and beginning of Byzantine empire). Probably this period of time gives us the richest and best preserved archaeological sites, as most of the ancient cities built by Greeks and Romans still stand there. The sites of this period spread over a large area, Greece, Asia Minor, Italy, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Syria, Israel. The sites of great prosperity, Rome, Ephesus, Antioch, Alexandria, Pompeii, Athens.

2. The archaeology of pre classical era
generally covers the Aegean and Mediterranean Islands such as Crete, Cyprus, Cyclades, Mitilini, Rhodes etc. These islands had carried out trading activities between different geographical locations and their sea-faring people had contributed to the development of their communities.

3. Near East and Asia Minor (Anatolia) 
civilizations show close similarities and must be grouped together. Notable sites are Jericho in Israel, Catalhoyuk , Cayonu, Hattussas, Tushba, Zincirli in Turkey. Most of these sites are those of the prehistoric times. Also under this heading must be the biblical archaeology, as most of the sites of the old and new testaments are located in this part of the world.

4. Archaeology of Egypt
represents a different culture, art and architecture than that of the other civilizations, so it must be one category to itself. The archaeological explorations in Egypt began and gained momentum with Napoleon's war campaigns against Egypt. As known, Rosetta stone found in Egypt was the main source for the French linguist Champelleon to decipher the Egyptian hieroglyphic.

5. Western Europe
the efforts to discover the ancient life of the western Europe generally concentrates on France, Spain and Great Britain in part.

6. Asian Archaeology
Particularly India, Pakistan and China are the leading countries in this area, where archaeologists had directed numerous excavations. The well known sites are Mohenjo-daro and Harappa and were excavated in 1920s. Especially the objects found in India have revealed that the Ancient Indian culture had been influenced greatly by the Hellenistic culture, doubtless carried there by Alexander the great and his soldiers.

7. Pacific ocean islands
like French Polynesia, Micronesia unfortunately have almost nothing from their early civilizations and being one of the poorest areas for the world of archaeology.

8. America
archaeologists are still exploring this continent, and from the findings so far, we understand especially meso-american cultures had represented a high level of civilizations a long time ago. The most notable ones being Maya civilization of c. 300 BC- 900 AD that covers part of Guatemala and Mexico today, and another one, Aztec civilization of medieval period c. 1325 Ad.

Early excavations carried out by British archaeologists were just like picnic making. The workers usually did much of the work digging all day, and their masters enjoyed their picnic lunch and drink. Egypt was excavated in 1850s, however early diggings took so short time, and usually the site would be abandoned and never dug again. The most important and sensational excavation of the past was that of Troy by  Heinrich Schliemann, a shabbily dressed, old scholar who spent considerable time wandering among the ruins of Asia Minor and Greece with worn-out copies of Iliad and Odyssey. His dream of finding the king Priam's treasures turned out to be real when he discovered them near the ramp against the city wall. But he never knew that the treasures he found were not Priam's. He was so much in hurry to find them, he missed and passed the king Priam's city and found the treasures of an earlier civilization of Troy which is beneath the Priam's city. The damage he did to the site still gives archaeologists a headache today. However, he left his mark in the history rediscovering the site of Troy.

When you are out in Anatolia, especially in Thrace, Central or Eastern Turkey, you will notice some mounds standing in the middle of a large plain, and leaving no doubt that they are artificial mounds made by human. So, this would be a perfect beginning point to believe that there is an ancient city buried underneath covered up by the rubble on the top. The general name given to those mounds in Turkey is " Hoyuk " or as we know it in archaeological terminology a " Tell " . If you drive out in the country side, you will see many signs pointing to such sites or even some modern villages may have the same name as they cover the site of a hoyuk. The reason that they are slightly higher than the surrounding area is that that site must have been inhabited by many succeeding civilizations built on the top of each other, and causing the site elevated. If the time and funds permit, the excavation should be done horizontally, allowing the archaeologist to uncover the city in layers and see the different phases of a city of a certain period. Only, vertical excavation helps archaeologist to find out what is the earliest civilization of that site, so he digs all the way to the bottom of the city, as usually the earliest inhabited layer may be found at the very button.

However, every mound you will see which fits the above description may not be a " hoyuk ", but a burial tomb for the local kings, which is called " Tumulus " in Turkish archaeological terminology. One difference you can notice between a hoyuk and tumulus is that the hoyuk usually covers a larger area and relatively flat on the top, as the tumulus is usually pointed on the top that looks like a primitive model of the Egyptian pyramids. Usually, archaeologists apply a different method of digging on the tumulus. The usual method is to dig the mound from the top, the reason being that most of the tumuluses have a burial chamber right in the center which is protected by a strong stone wall. And it is really hard to drill into the burial chamber from the side, because of that wall. Also, as usually, these burial chambers have openings on the top that eases the work of the archaeologists. So once they are inside the burial chamber, they can dig horizontally the other parts of the tumulus. One of the best known tumuluses in Asia Minor can be found at Gordion of ancient Phrygia, about an hour of drive west of Ankara. This is erroneously called the King Midas' tomb because the occupant was Gordios the legendary king of Phrygia who tied the Gordion knot. On the other hand, King Midas' tomb is located at the Midas' city on the way from Eskisehir to Afyon. The burial gifts ( silver and bronze) from the so-called King Midas' Tomb of Gordion are on display in the the museum of Anatolian Civilizations.

Also, ancient writers like Strobe gives us perfect details of the locations of the cities of his time.

If you are in the Aegean and Mediterranean area, at some places you won't miss the perfectly cut stones which were the main building materials of the past. Now, you can think that you are in the vicinity of an ancient site which is most probably Hellenistic or Roman.

Another sign is the fortresses built on the top of the hills. This was a popular way for ancient people to build their cities. Generally, the fortress stands on the top having temples, palaces, public buildings inside and surrounding area is covered by people's houses. In the time of danger, or siege the whole town people gathered in the fortress to defend their cities against the enemy. As known, Greeks called these hilltops where they had their cities," Acropolis " meaning upper city.

Archaeologists and historians taking the invention of writing as a turning point in the human evolution, examine the history of civilizations under two separate headings, " Prehistoric Ages " and " Historic Ages ". Old Stone Age covers the longest period of time among all levels of civilizations.

Living conditions were hard and the nature was cruel to human being. The life was totally wild. They lived in the caves or occupied the rock and wood shelters. They tended to stay in large groups and had to share their food with other family members.
If we had had a chance to take a look at those people, we would have seen a crowded flog of people living like animals. Basically their living conditions depended on their hunting and fishing abilities, or collecting edible plants from the nature around them. In this sense, we can say these earliest groups were just consumers as they didn't know yet to produce any thing and they always tried to take advantage of the nature. The remains of bones and other remains of wild animals have been found in the caves in large quantities, so we understand that these people just ate their food and left the remains there in their cave. All the tools they had had to be obtained from the nature such as flint axes, obsidian cutters and scrapers. It was too early yet for the human to build sophisticated and complicated weapons and tools. Also, they didn't have a settled life yet, whenever the food sources around them diminished, they had to move on to other locations. The natural conditions were quiet equal for human and wild animals. However, towards the end of the Paleolithic Age, human produced some art as well, they painted their cave walls with the depiction of their everyday lives, such as hunting scenes, symbolic paintings related to fertility, and wild animals. The art they produced was the most distinctive element which differs human being from the wild animals. The archaeological excavations have revealed that the Paleolithic life was available in almost every part of Anatolia. Especially, the diggings in the Euphrates basin in the SW Turkey have brought many Paleolithic settlements to the light.

If we give some examples of Paleolithic sites in Anatolia, " Karain Cave " from Antalya / Mediterranean region reflects the best preserved cave with some paintings on the walls. Also from the same region, we can count Beldibi, Belbasi, Okuzini, Kumbucagi and Kadiini Caves.

The best examples of the tools and other artifacts produced by Paleolithic People are on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, and at the Archaeological Museum of Antalya.

Coming Next : The human being getting more civilized and organized....( Mesolithic/Middle Stone Age )

This period gives way to the most impressive development of the human kind..New Stone Age. Middle Stone Age is a period of transition of the human from Old Stone Age to New Stone Age. Hunting and the collecting of plants continued to be the main supply of food, but the human began to store the food in storages for later consumption. Domestication of Animals is the main development of this period, we see the dog as domestic animal. From the wall paintings, we understand that the artistic qualifications of this period are almost equal to preceeding Old Stone Age, and a little level of development was achieved, probably the human has been busy with the invention of new things that had made their lives easier.

Coming Next : Impressive developments and inventions from New Stone Age Man....

The life style of humankind in this period changes in a way that it had never happened the same way before. The two important events caused this change, first was the cultivation of plants, and the second was the domestication of wild animals that both were acquired wild before. So, human had to leave the rock and wood shelters and build homes to stay within a close distance from his farm. Actually Neolithic period is to be considered as the beginning of real civilization. Because this period saw the major changes in human evolution, for example village life, religion, art, architecture, farming, advanced tools and weapons etc.

To name some important Neolithic sites in Asia Minor ;
The settlements at Cayonu, Catalhoyuk, Hacilar, Norsuntepe and Kosk represent typical Neolithic towns. Although Catalhoyuk in Central Turkey is the most advanced among all, but Cayonu in the Eastern turkey goes back to around 7,250-6,750 BC. which makes it the oldest Neolithic village in Tukey. The layout of Cayonu gives a square in the center of the town with some rectangular shaped monumental buildings and houses around it. Most of the buildings have the lower parts built out of stones and upper parts out of mud bricks. Apparently the people of this town knew the farming techniques and grew wheat, because many farming tools have been found at the site to prove this fact. Besides the farming, the domesticated various animals such as sheep and goats were also available in their towns. It is believed that the Dog was the first domestic animal of this period. Also, the figurines of a female deity found at the site are a clear evidence that the religion came to be an important event in their lives. Later, this female deity came to be known as the Mother Goddess of Anatolia, and has been worshipped for milleniums under the name " Cybele ".

Another site in the Western Turkey, called Hacilar has built a well advanced civilization following the above town Cayonu. This town has been dated back to 7,040 BC. The excavations made here have revealed that this town had produced agricultural produce such as wheat, barley and lentils. Also the remains of animals such as goat, sheep, dog and cow have been uncovered at the site.

The discovery of the metal has resulted in the development of trade between the local or remote civilizations, and they have established a well network of trading centers where they had exchanged commodities. This caused the invention and development of writing which they used to keep the record of their inventories.  Asia Minor that was the leader in urban development and civilization during the Neolithic period has lost its leader position towards the end of Chalcolithic Period, because Mesopotamia and Egypt had invented writing and reached a high level of civilization.  Asia Minor has followed Mesopotamia and Egypt about 1,000 years late in the invention of writing.

 

1.      Early Chalcolithic Period ( 5,500 - 4,500 BC.)

2.      Middle Chalcolithic Period ( 4,500 - 4,000 BC.)

3.      Late Chalcolithic Period ( 4,000- 3,000 BC.)

During this period of time, the most striking development was the extensive use of Copper. Until this period, the only material that the humankind had used to make their weapons was natural stones. Now, they learned to process and shape this metal copper to make strong weapons and also ornamentation. We also see a considerable increase in the number of towns that scatter here or there. The new towns of this period were usually built on the water or in rich valleys. The great mother goddess of Asia Minor was the main deity and they have made many figurines of this goddess which they used in their religious rituals. The burials that were within the houses of preceding Neolithic period now take place outside the towns.

Some important sites of this period :
Hacilar, a site in the Southwest Turkey which gives the best examples of pottery and artifacts of this period.
Other sites are: Beycesultan, Canhasan, Mersin Yumuktepe, Elazig Tepecik, Malatya Degirmentepe, Norsuntepe, Istanbul Fikirtepe.