Bronze Age
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 Bronze Age
As west and east of Asia Minor did not reach the same level of civilization at the same time, Anatolian Greek, Hatti and Hittite cultures will be discussed in a separate section. After a long period of decline, Asia Minor has reached a bright period again in the middle bronze age. It was one of the important centers in Art, Urban Planning, Sculpture and Pottery. Also, the ancient sites of this period shows us that many of the towns were fortified for defence purposes, an evidence that there was a big struggle for power between states and tribes. During the Bronze Age, Asia Minor has undergone a heavy colonization by Assyrians from Mesopotamia and Greeks from the other side of the Aegean Sea.
1.      Early Bronze Age ( 3,000 - 2,500 BC. )
2.      Middle Bronze Age ( 2,500 - 2,000 BC. )
3.      Late Bronze Age ( 2,000 - 1,200 BC. )
The humankind in search of new inventions that would make their lives easier has learned to alloy copper with tin that makes a harder and stronger metal than both copper and tin, we call this metal bronze and this period of time, Bronze Age. This period falls almost within the same period of time when the writing was invented in Mesopotamia. What they have invented for the industrial development was pottery wheel that had increased the production significantly. The invention of bronze has led to the development of new skills in processing and refining gold, silver and other metals. The artifacts made out of a mixture of gold and silver have decorated the palaces of Kings and Princes. The significant increase in production and surplus of metal products has necessitated the export of such items to other communities in the area or even to other kingdoms in remote areas. Another important invention of this period was that of carts of four wheels drawn by oxen which has provided significant assistance for the transportation.
Some notable sites of this period :
Troy, the legendary city of Homer, Kultepe, Horoztepe, Polatli, Ahlatlibel, Alacahoyuk, Bogazkoy, Alisar, Eskiyapar.






6 ) Hatti Culture
We know little yet about Hatti Culture that fluorished in Cenral part of Turkey. We know that since 3rd millenium BC. the name given by the Mesopotamian civilizationas to the native people of Anatolia was Hatti. This civilization was probably away from being an organized political power, but created some noteworthy works of art. They seem like to have made the path for the later civilization called Hittites that occupied the same area in Central Turkey. Some scholars tend to believe that Hatti and Hittites might be the same people, but we know that Hittites entered Anatolia a little bit later, and originated from Caucasus area. So, we don't yet have any concrete information  to support the idea that they could be the same people. Actually, about the time Hatti people lived in Turkey, we don't see any central power that could rule this vast land, only later it was Hittites to do that.






7 ) Hittites

The history of Hittites begins about 1700 BC and ends in 712 BC. A prince, whose name was Anetta, has set up a city on his own and named it Kussara which became the core of the Hittite Kingdom. It is believed that the Hittites have entered Anatolia from the East. Although Anetta is considered traditionally the founder of Hittite Kingdom, but we have another name as the real founder of the Kingdom, he is Labarnas I. The history of the Hittites falls within three main periods of time.
1.      Old Hittite Kingdom ( 1720 to 1480 BC )
2.      Great Hittite Kingdom or Imperial Hittites ( 1480 to 1190 BC )
3.      Late Hittite City States ( 1190 to 712 BC )

1 ) Old Hittite Kingdom ( 1720 - 1480 BC )
This is the first political organization in Anatolia, although people before Hittites have lived and built here or there, they where far from being a political unity. Labarnas I built a strong state and organized his people under his command and also gave his name to the first dynasty of the Hittites. His successor Labarnas II has moved the capital of the Kingdom from Kussara to Hattussas ( modern Bogazkale ) which has become later the capital of Hittites for over the centuries. Labarnas II has also made successful campaigns against Aleppo ( now in Syria ) and captured it. His grandson Mursilis I ( 1620-1590 ) after succeeding his grand father has marched towards Babylon and put an end to Hammurabi dynasty. But in the capital city was awaiting a bad surprise for him, on returning from his campaigns, ha was murdered by his brother in law, and an interregnum period began in Anatolia at the cost of loss of territories captured and conquered earlier. So, this period of intrigues and fights over the throne continued to year 1525 BC., when Telepinus became the sole ruler over the Hittite Lands. One of the many reforms he has made, was the foundation of a high court called Pankus. This court had a power even to judge the King himself. The 20 years following Telepinus' death was a big chaos and disorder.
2 ) Great Hittite State or Imperial Period
We have the names of 14 kings who were active during this period.   Among these were Suppiluliama I ( 1375-1345 BC ), Mursilis II ( 1315 - 1282 BC ), Hattusilis III, Tudhalia IV ( 1250-1230 BC ). During the reign of Muvattalis, Ramses II was in power in Egypt, the war between two most powerful states in the Middle East area has resulted in the first written international treaty known to us as " Kadesh Treaty ".  Although this treaty was written originally in Accadian language, copies in Hittite and Egyptian have been made. Tudhalia was one of the most reformist kings in the Hittite history, and he also organized internal and religious affairs. Most of the ruins visible today in Hattussas come from his time. The main problems of this period was the Assyrians who were unwilling to come to any terms with Hittites and also a heavy famine hit the country that was solved by the help of Egyptians who supplied wheat in accordance with the terms of Kadesh Treaty. The unexpected end of the Hittites was not because of Assyrians, but it came from the West, the flog of people known as ' Sea Peoples ' in the book of History of Herodotus, have destroyed much of Asia Minor including Hittite cities and Hattussas. This destruction happened in about 1200 BC, and  the Hittites have never been able to restore their state again. Those who survived have moved down to Northern Syria and established themselves as small city states.
3 ) Hittite City States ( 1190 - 712 BC )
The people who survived the massacre of the forein invaders ' Sea Peoples ' have moved to Northern Syria and integrated with native people of the area and built many towns. As the survivors of the Hittites were far from being a political unity, we know this period as City States Period. It would be wrong to believe that these people were the continuation of the Hittites, because their political and art life show significant differences from area to area. So, they must have been assimilated by the local cultures, but they also have maintasined some of their native art and culture. The remaining Hittite cities and towns have been totally destroyed by the Assyrians who had, at every opportunity, attacked the Hittites. Thus, from around 700 BC, all of the Hittite towns have been incorporated into Assyrian states and provinces. The vacuum created by the disappearence of the Hittites in Anatolia was filled by the Luwians a native community, Phrygians the people of the King Midas, and by Urartians in the eastern Anatolia.



6) Urartian Period ( 840 - 600 BC )
We come across the name Urartu, first in the Old Testament, under the name Ararat . As we remember, Ararat was the mount where Noah's Ark has landed after the big flood of Old Testament. No question that these two names Mount Ararat and Urartu are closely related with each other. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire, the kingdom of Urartu have emerged around the Lake Van in eastern Turkey. Urartians have formed a state by absorbing Hurrians who were their relatives and living in the Lake Van region. Urartian kingdom based in their capital Tushpa on the shore of Lake Van, has covered a large territory extending from Caspian Sea and southern Caucasus to eastern and southeastern Anatolia and also northeastern Mesopotamia. In the 13th C. BC., Urartians have formed two separate small kingdoms, Uriatri and Nairi. The name Uriatri, in Assyrian language means " Mountainous Area ", a description that fits perfectly the geographical features of this area. In the Assyrian annals, this area and Lake Van are referred to as "Nairi Lands" and "The Lake Nairi". The period from 13th C. BC. to 9th C. BC., is called the "Period of Confederation of Principalities". By this time, military pressure from Assyria on Urartu Lands was so intense that small kingdoms of Urartu have formed a coalition and fought off against Assyrians successfully. This coalition led to a unified Urartu State around 875 BC. The kingdom of Urartu was founded by Sarduri I c. 840-830 BC. The young state was able to resist Assyrian attack by Shalmeneser III and extended its influence to northern Iran, northern Syria and Transcaucasia. Sarduri I has built his capital at Tushpa (modern Van where the extensive ruins are still in  great shape). In the time of Ispuini, the son of Sarduri I, who ruled from ca.830 to 810, Assyrians have recognized the Urartian kingdom as a sovereign and independent state. For the next two hundred years, Urartians have secured the largest political and  cultural power of the Eastern highlands of Anatolia and Caucasia area. 
With the gradual weakening of the Assyrian military power has made the way for Urartians to gain some more territories and also to spare some sources for the building of the Urartian cities and towns. Particularly Ispuini has built many temples and fortresses around the capital Tushpa.
Another important site of the Urartians was Toprakkale. From an inscription found here, we know that this area was incorporated into Urartian kingdom during the reign of Ispuini and despite the bloody fights between Urartians and Assyrians,  Urartians have produced many pictorial and cuneiform inscriptions in the language of their enemy Assyrians. This explains to us that Urartians like Hittites had people form various stocks. 
During the reign of Menua (ruled 810-786 BC) , the son of Ispuini, Milidia and Euphrates were taken into Urartian State. By that time, Urartian land was so vast that it was difficult to manage it from one central administrative  center, so Menua appointed local governors to different parts of his kingdom. Menua has built a water canal of 32 miles long for the irrigation of the Tushpa area which was used by the farmers until very recently. 
Argisti I (ruled 786-764BC), the son of Menua, has built a temple and fortress on a hilltop at Aznavurtepe, this fortress is known today by the locals as the "tomb of the father Aznavur". Argisti I crossed the river Araxes and proceeded right into the heart of Caucasia and built the town Argistihinili (means city of Argisti). The inscription he had put over and around the rock tomb on the Van fortress is known as the longest Urartian inscription found ever. The inscription mentions the war campaigns and the geographical expansion of the state.
During the reign of Sarduri II (ruled 764-735 BC), the Urartian kingdom was at its peak. Aleppo was taken from the Assyrians and Assyrians lost their contact with the Mediterranean Sea. Sarduri II penetrated almost as far as Nineveh, the Assyrian capital.  Sarduri has also left some written records of his reign, two steles, one found which was placed in two large niches inside the cult section of the temple, on the northeastern slopes of the Tushpa fortress which is a rock stele contains information about the events during his reign, the other stele has disappeared a long time ago. Similar steles have been found at the sites, Ispuini and Sardurihinili (Cavustepe). Sarduri II's reign brought around great prosperity and wealth. The fortress at Sarurihinili (Cavustepe) shows the  advance level of Urartian architecture. 
But, in the reign of Tighlat Pleser III, military situation began to change against Urartians. Tighlat Pleser III, after  reforming his army and employing new war tactics, attacked the Urartian capital Tushpa, and performed a cruel massacre here. He erected a huge stele on the upper part of the fortress Tushpa. 
Rusa I, who came on throne after his father Sarduri II, avoided to encounter Assyrians directly and secured his borders through a series of treaties he made with the neighboring kingdoms. By this time, another king of Assyria Sargon II, sent spies to Urartian lands. These spies passed the clay tablets with information about Urartu military along to Assyrian king. With the information obtained, Sargon II attacked the Urartu Land and Assyrians achieved a decisive victory over the Urartians. On this defeat, Rusa I the king of Urartians committed suicide. Even this heavy defeat did not bring the Urartian kingdom to an end. 
Rusa I's son Argisti II became next king after his father's suicide. Argisiti II concentrated on rebuilding of the Urartian cities as wellas building new cities. Titumnia, which is located on the northern shores of Lake Van was built by this king. Titumnia known by the modern name Zernakitepe is the first city known in Anatolia, built on grid plan, with streets intersecting each other at right angles. Argisti II also built an artificial lake and irrigation canals, with the aim to develope agricultural production. 
Internal conflicts following the death of Sargon II, caused some troubles in the Assyrian lands, and Urartians enjoyed a brief period of peace and wealth. But, this time, the trouble for Urartians came from Northeast. Cimmerians began intense attacks on Urartian lands. Argisti II, to resist the Cimmerian assaults,  built new fortresses or reinforced the existing fortresses on the northern part of his kingdom.  
Rusa II (ruled 685-645 BC), built Toprakkale near the capital Tushpa as his second capital. He also built a dam behind the Mount Erek and water canals, to provide Urartian farmers with irrigation. About this time, another threat appeared from east, The Medes turned their eyes to Urartian lands. Urartians under pressure from two warrior peoples, the Medes and Cimmerians, had to establish a cooperation with their enemy Assyrians. Although Urartu kingdom has survived for some time following the death of the king Rusa, but has never been an important political power. The political power in this area has changed to Schytians, the Medes and Babilonians, following the destruction of Assyrian kingdom by the Medes. Urartu lands was invaded and looted many times by the Schytians. Probably the Medes erased the Urartian kingdom for ever from the historical scene.  Assyrian annals which were invaluable source of information for this area mentions no king after Sarduri III, the son of Rusa II. However, some scholars accept Rusa III, the son of Erimana, as the last king of Urartu kingdom.







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